Auditing, Financial/Tax and Management Accounting

To obtain a challenging position utilizing several years experience in Accounting, Computers or Management Own and operate a Computer business. Rebuild and make custom built computers per request. Provide computer training,repair,web design. Union Planters Trust & Investment Management Manage investment fund accounts and ensure proper trade and balance. Maintain and process records. May Company, World Omni, Onsite Staffing Collections Manager/Collections Analyst Manage customer.s accounts and ensure line of credit. Maintain and process internal records of Collection. Prepare legal documentation as needed. Initiate credit investigations and establish Documentation for collection on indirect loans, direct loans, home equity and line of credit. Dresser Industries,Manpower Temporary Service, American Building Material Accountant, Collections Manager, Export Biller Assigned to companies in need of assistance with their accounting department. To include general ledger, Taxes, accounts receivable, accounts payable, collections, credit and payroll. Administer procedures for branch managers for collection. Managed credit for customers for eight States. Managed customer accounts and maintained and processed internal records of collection. Initiate credit investigations. Prepared legal documentation. Journal entries through month end closing. Reconciliation, financial statement presentation. Computer literacy with mainframe software and PC spreadsheet software. Auditing: checking accounting ledgers and financial statements within the corporation. Budget Analysis: responsible For developing and managing the organizations financial plans. Financial: prepare financial statements based on General ledgers and participate in important financial decisions involving mergers & acquisitions, benefits/ERISA Planning and long-term financial projections. Management Accounting: decisions about capital budgeting and line of business analysis. Major functions included cost analysis, analysis of new contracts and participation in efforts to control expenses efficiently. Responsibility to spend money in the company at the right level of our Organizational goals and objectives to control cost being communicated effectively Tax: prepare corporate income Tax statements and formulate tax strategies involving issues such as financial choice, deferral of taxes, when to Expense items Responsibilities included the management of the following functions: Accoun! ting, financial planning And reporting, payroll, human resources, internal computer support. Developed Standard operating procedures for Inventory control, Accounts Payable, Accounts Receivable. Implemented new accounting system from manual to Daceasy. Supervised 15 employees, administered several audits.

Philosophy of coaching

Many coaches have their own philosophy to live by. Some coaches are to win, some are to teach the players to be responsible, and some are to allow the players to Just have fun. When the word philosophy comes to mind I immediately think of the words and accomplishments a coach should live by. My coaching philosophy is one that is not fully developed. Right now my philosophy is to win but at the same time teach my players to be responsible. Of course everything is easier in words than it is to follow UT in actions.The way I plan to do this is by having the players become dedicated to the program and in the classroom. Grade checks will be sent out every week and attendance will be taking every day at practice. If a player has a G. P. A under a 2. 5 they will have to continue to get grade checks until the end of the year. If a player misses morning weights they will have to run at practice unless it is an excused miss. Also if they miss an afternoon practice they will out a quarter for e ach day they miss.Doing all of these I believe I can have a group of responsible young men eager to play and excited to win. With all the hard work there will be time for play. Every day there will a competition between offense and defense or lard buts and skinny farts. Winner will be able to get out of conditions for the day. These are all the things I plan to do when I am a coach. I believe if I use these guidelines to start off my career I can build my philosophy to become a great coach.

Consumer demographics and psychographics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Consumer demographics and psychographics - Essay Example Mission Statement The underlying mission statement reads, â€Å"We enable consumers to improve the quality and convenience of their lives by providing high-quality, innovative fashion products.† Product Product from the new line is of top quality. The production concept and prototype have indicated that new denim trousers introduced by the company through its new product line possess distinctive design features which are appealing to the potential buyers. The design features give an impression which customers tend to associate with quality and artistic elegance. These quality attributes are in line with the company’s mission. Establishment of new line, which cause reduction in production costs and improves quality, saves the customers on prices thus bringing convenience in their lives. The artistic appearance and elegance of the new product coupled with the low cost production line is as a result of innovation by the company’s designers. This is consistent with p roduct quality, innovation and consumer convenience, which is explicitly emphasized within the company’s mission. Dibb and Simkin (2008), development of a line of new denim trousers which is anticipated to be successful, is a significant stride towards achievement to the mission. Consumer Product Classification According to the three-way Consumer Product Classification System, the company’s products can be classified as shopping products. According to Dibb and Simkin (2008), quality and design of the products gives a special psychological appeal; hence making them distinguished by the consumers from all the rest. The products have a great artistic design features and extensive testing has identified them as the most popular and comfortable pair of trousers in the industry. Target Market With the advancement in fashion dynamics, there is increased need for artistic designer clothing for casual and official occasions. From previous market survey, young generations, espec ially people aged between 21 and 35 years, feature as the main consumers of the company’s goods. Statistics indicate that the mentioned age group makes approximately 76% of the total consumers of brand denim products. It has been established through various demographic and economic studies that this age group comprises of low income earners. Sometimes, few people in this â€Å"techno generation† who are lucky enough to have high income usually have numerous expenditures. Most people in the generation like associating themselves with high social status despite of their strict spending principles. According to Dibb & Simkin (2008), cost reduction and quality assurance in the product targeting this group must be considered. Consumers are also sensitive to appearances and are commonly attracted to clothes which are elegant and artistic. It is therefore possible to drift them towards the new low cost products that the company is producing. Demographic studies have shown tha t the number of people joining this age group is increasing while those leaving it are substantially decreasing. This shows possibility of a widening market in future. Analysis of Competitive Market Environment Competitive Rivalry Fashion industry is well inhabited by manufacturing companies but few of the companies specialize in branded denim products. However, there are three established denim producers and two more others with considerably lower production capacity. Although some of these companies have managed to reduce prices of their products, it is yet to reach the extent to which the new product line of the company intends to achieve. This

The Urban Scence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Urban Scence - Essay Example lled outward expansion because people can simply build new settlements outside of old settlements, which is the same benefits and problems as lack of centralized planning of land use. Fiscal disparities and segregation between zones have benefits of allowing people be able to live near people of similar economic situation and industry, but at the cost of creating self perpetuating systems of oppression and poverty, because people from bad schools will continue to go to bad schools, have lack of access to services and so on. Question 2: There are a wide variety of anti-sprawl strategies that have been suggested to prevent sprawl. One of them is regional tax sharing: this means that taxes from upscale, somewhat sprawled areas will continue to be funneled into lower income areas where white flight and been causing emigration, thus limiting the effect of white flight because local services, school and so on will remain relatively good in inner-city areas, making them continue to have good schools, local services and cheaper property taxes that they would otherwise be able to do. Another is to create a regional planning committee which will coordinate growth and expansion, which is a good idea because there is simply no way to create a regional growth strategy without one. The fist strategy discussed in this article is to create a zoning boundary through which urban sprawl cannot go past. This will be a problem in a market based economy due to the fact that people will always pay higher rates to get where t hey want to go, which will create pockets of poverty and affluence wherever you go. Politicians only have a limited ability to fight sprawl, because they do not have control over areas outside of their control, and one of the fundamental aspects of sprawl is simply leaving the current boundaries and creating a new city/community. Regional planning councils, however, can mitigate this problem though not completely eliminate it. Question 3: There are a wide

Architecture and Urban Projects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Architecture and Urban Projects - Essay Example For the progress of the Gaza strip in general, and the city of Gaza in particular, there is the need for Israeli approval and loosening of its iron grip over the area it once occupied and continues to control economically and militarily. This is possible only if guns on both sides fall silent and give way to a joint political and economical panel. The Gaza Strip is located 45 meters above sea level bordering the Mediterranean. Over the last 50 years its population has risen dramatically from 50,000 in 1948 to about 1.2 million in 2002, with population density of between 20,000 to100,000 per square kilometer in certain places, making it one of the most densely populated areas in the world. Half of the population consists of refugees displaced after the creation of Israel. (1) The old city of Gaza admeasures about one square kilometer and is enclosed by a great wall with gates serving as entrance and exit points. With the rise of population and activity, it spread out on the north, south and east of the old city limits. Places of interest are the Mosque of Al Sayed Hashem, the Mosque of Ibn Marwan, the Great Omari mosque, the Sheikh Abul Azm sanctuary, the the Sheikh Ailin sanctuary, Napoleaon's fort also known as Al Radwan Castle, Tell al Mintar, and the church of St Porphyrius. The Gaza city is located between Israel and Egypt, and is the principle city of Palestine. The northern suburbs of Gaza are mazes of crumbling buildings and present a picture of overcrowded populace, living in abject poverty. The historic part of the city is located in the heart of the city. The main street named Omar al Mukhtar Street runs east to west from Al Shuja'iyva quarter and extends up to the sea. There are tourist resorts with swimming pools, or facilities for swimming at the beach. (1) According to its Municipal plan, the city is primarily divided into four areas: Area B, Area C, Area of High-rise buildings, and Tourist area. In keeping with the civic rules, Buildings in Area B must be situated 3 meters away from the street and 2 meters on other sides. It must be built on a plot admeasuring at least 250 square meters, and must not consist of more than 5 floors, including the ground floor. The building must not occupy more than 60% of the plot. Buildings in Area C must be situated 2 meters away from the street and 1 meter on other sides. It must be built on a plot admeasuring at least 250 square meters, and must not consist of more than 5 floors, including the ground floor. The building must not occupy more than 80% of the plot. High rise buildings overlook streets at least 20 meters wide and extend from east to west of the city. The plot must admeasure at least 1000 square meters and the building must not occupy more than 50% of the plot. The tourist area is located 400 meters to the east of the coast line, and the detail plan is being drawn. The Gaza municipality oversees

Recruitment and Hiring Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Recruitment and Hiring - Term Paper Example This is a positive development, for otherwise, important private information will be subject to misuse and exploitation. The rest of this essay will outline key laws, regulations and principles for recruiters to mull over as they discharge their duties in the HRM department. It is common practice for employers to scrutinize past behavior of a potential employee and make sure that the latter is not prone to criminal or other disruptive behavior. (Connerley, et. al., 2001, p.73) But conducting background checks on prospective employees is wrought with risk. Previous employers are also caught in a quagmire for the risk of eliciting a defamation suit from disgruntled former employees. Hence, employers should make sure that they abstain from giving false or defamatory statement regarding their former employees. Other criteria that could lead to a defamation claim are: â€Å"an unprivileged publication to a third party; fault amounting at least to negligence on the part of the publisher; and either action-ability of the statement irrespective of special harm or the existence of special harm caused by the publication.† (Long, 1997, p.190) Hence, in order to comply with state and federal laws, careful avoidance of defamation of former employees is crucial. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the foundation for modern corporate defamation laws. It lays out the limits and expectations of the legal relationship between workers and their managers, especially Title VII of the Act. The courts and state legislatures, having identified that the employees are the ones holding upper hand in defamation suits have promulgated statutory reforms in recent years. It is perhaps a measure of these reforms that â€Å"in an effort to increase the free exchange of references, at least twenty-six states now provide some type of statutory immunity for employers when they provide a reference. Prior to 1995, only five states had such laws.† (Long, 1997, p.190) Hence it is important for employers to ensure no discrimination exists, either in the form of racism, sexism or ageism in the hiring process. It is also important that the tests for selection and appraisal are standardized in order to prevent claims of arbitrary and / or discriminatory hiring practices. (Fuss & Snowden, 2004, p.54) Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact are two theories under Title VII of the United States Civil Rights Act. Together, they were intended to prohibit discriminatory actions on part of employers toward racial, sexual or class minorities. The theory of Disparate Treatment first came into judicial discourse in the Griggs v. Duke Power Co. During and after this case, the term â€Å"business necessity† became central to deciding such cases. If business managers treat minorities in a disparate manner in the absence of compelling business needs, then their action can be construed as discriminatory and in violation of provisions under Title VII. In all disparate treatment c ases, â€Å"whether the issue is the truth or falsity of the employer's reason for its action, or the co-existence of legitimate and illegitimate motives, whether the plaintiff puts on direct or circumstantial evidence, or both, the issue at the liability stage is simply whether the plaintiff has shown, by a preponderance of the evidence, that discrimination was a motivating factor in the employment decision.† (Drachsler, 2005, p.230) The Civil Rights Act of 1991,

Tall Ships Festival in 2014 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tall Ships Festival in 2014 - Essay Example I may not know all the different types of ships present but I can identify a few ships that look like the battleships I have watched in some action movies and simply seeing them is an awesome experience. The number of people on the port is uncountable as they are into their thousands. Women are dressed in short shorts and halter tops all complete with sandals and wide-brimmed hats to prevent the scorching sun. The men, on the other hand, are also dressed in shorts and male sandals and t-shirts. The same goes for the children. It is not surprising that there are no animals as they are not allowed but the large crowds make up for the lack of animal sounds. Not everyone is entering the ships for the competition but some people are left behind mostly for fear of water or simply to watch over the children scared of the tall humongous ships. The air is filled with different noises from laughter to shouts and screams to even sounds of crying children and of course of the water being disturbed by the ships and the sound is soothing and good music to the ears of those relaxing in the shaded areas and benches. The place is protected from accidents by use of fences. Car traffic is heavy as people are entering the port but there are numerous parking attendants pointing to the large parking spaces. Those on foot are carried using the shuttles to the port from the two entry points but since the shuttles are not many, the first priority is being given to those in wheelchairs and crutches, pregnant women as well as those with small children which is very interesting. The port is littered with tons of vendor booths selling refreshments and snacks and what is also interesting is the fact that there are hundreds of litter bins in anticipation of the amount of trash. T

Appraise the impact of Post-Latham and Egan report initiatives on Essay

Appraise the impact of Post-Latham and Egan report initiatives on procurement pathways and ways of working within the construction industry - Essay Example 1. The government, including public sector organisations such as local authorities and health authorities, should become a best practice client. Clients should remain at the centre of the procurement process and work together to bring value in their projects and promote excellence in design. 4. Although the construction industry is likely to have an output equivalent to approximately 10 per cent of the GDP, the industry’s in-house research and development capital has fallen by 80 per cent since 1981. Investment in research and development is required. 6. In order to achieve 10 per cent annual reduction in construction costs and 20 per cent reduction of defects, radical changes are needed to the processes through which the project develops. These processes need to be explicit and transparent to the industry and its clients. Initially the government (being the sponsoring side) and the key player within the construction industry responded well to both the reports. The drive for change originated from procurement and contractual areas in the UK construction industry. Later years witnessed considerable changes in UK construction industry, which impacted the way projects were managed and reviewed. The construction process at all levels experienced the benefits of collaboration, and ultimately the way of working in the construction industry changed. The main responsible agencies within the government i.e. The Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions and The Office of Government Commerce, along with the key players in construction industry attempted to improve the performance of departments and Contractors. The report ‘Mordenising Construction’ by the Controller and Auditor General (2001) mentions that, government and key players within the construction industry took several steps to implement the key principles highlighted in the reports. These include: 3.

Rise and fall of American labor unions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Rise and fall of American labor unions - Essay Example This kind of project is non-routine work that is not done regularly. A project has duration. Example, the project of basketball construction has duration of two months. Project needs Resources. Project needs, men, materials, time and money to finish the basketball court. Resources are scarce. So, if the organization wants to finish the project, they have to make a budget estimate within which to finish the work. 1.2. Planning and organization. The purpose of planning is to determine the best possible way of achieving specified objective within the specified period of time and costs. It is a technique that aims at maximum utilization of resources. Every person, organization or a government entity has plans. For example, Martha has plans to build a house, the neighborhood plans to build a club house, and the government plans to build a connecting highway. In all of these plans, the elements of project management are important. These are planning, scheduling, implementation, control and monitoring. These are easily done with small projects, but gets difficult and complex when it comes to big projects like government projects. A basketball court construction is simpler in details than a government road project. 1.4 Project appraisal and financing Financing is the significant link between the project and implementation because no matter how good or feasible the project in terms of technical and economics, it cannot work without money. The problem concerns of the project is not only measuring the financial needs but to be assured of financing, where and when needed. This usually entails a loan proposal, and identifying sources of financing. The proponent or organization could resort to borrowings from banks or institutions for private entity; or if it is a government project, funds may come from general appropriations, grants or loan from government banks or rely on foreign loans. In our example, funds for the purpose may come from donations. 1.5 Project life cycle A project has a life cycle. It starts with the conception stage. It is the time when the idea started. Next is the design stage – this is where designs of the project area are presented; usually a committee appraises the appropriateness of the design. Then we have implementation – this is the time of actual work; and the commissioning stage that marks end of project. Going back to project, idea came from the Youth Association, and the design could come from another group who will design, next is a group that finances and implements the project. Last stage is the ending of the project or turn over. 1.6 Organizational workflow, staffing processes and project planning elements Workflow is defined as a sequence of steps that consists of work process involving two or more persons that adds value to the organization’s activities.2 Workflow has two processes, the sequential and parallel work flow. The former is dependent on the occurrence of the previous steps, while th e latter allows two or more steps concurrently. Staffing process. A project requires manpower, and for this purpose, there is a need to establish manpower inventory. First step to staffing is to plan for a manpower inventory in order to match manpower requirements and demand3. Afterwards, other processes follow like recruitment, selection, orientation and placement; and remuneration. A short project does not necessarily involve promotion and

Why Did Japan Attack Pearl Harbor Essay Example for Free

Why Did Japan Attack Pearl Harbor Essay During World War II, the United States of America thought they could live safely as none of the warring nations on the other continents could possibly attack the US. Americans were neutral to the war in Europe. What they didn’t anticipate was that they were the ones being targeted. The United States was going to be invited into the war with an attack from Japan at Pearl Harbor. But was the United States invited in or inviting themselves into the war? From the actions of the United States, they invited Japan’s war to come to them. Before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Americans were living life as usual. They were supplying other countries with no desire of war. They even passed a Lend Lease Act to make supplying other countries more business focused and neutral. Americans were at peace. President Franklin Roosevelt gave an addressed on October of 1940, â€Å"I have said this before, but I shall say it again and again and again; your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars. † Supplying other countries was business. That changed as Japan conquered northern French Indochina and expanded into China. The United States noticed this was going to be a big issue if Japan was not stopped. In 1940 they embargoed all scrap iron and oil to Japan which prolonged Japans expansion into China. This also led to Britain and the Netherlands cutting oil supply to Japan. This crippled Japans army effectively and became a big issue for Japan. This would force Japan to have to make quicker and better decisions with the limited amount of sources they had. Japan was riding on a huge momentum going into China, but the United States were starting to take that away from them little by little. The United States started looking more and more like an obstacle for Japan. But those actions don’t count as participating or not participating in a war. The Lend Lease Act was made to look like supplying the Allies was just business. One can’t simply go to war with another country just because they traded for leasing rights. Japan was buying natural resources from the United States but you can’t go to war just because a country won’t give you what isn’t yours either. These actions made it harder on Japan but were not the main reason Japan had to attack Pearl Harbor. The United States did more direct things to invoke the attack. The United States not only cut these supplies from Japan, they were lending resources to China to defend against Japan. The Americans also sent military advisor volunteers into China to help train Chinese Pilots. For the United States to claim neutrality and then supply China was very disrespectful towards Japan. Japan already felt bound to an island with limited resources and felt the need to seek out larger natural resources. For the United States to just build an obstacle to stop them angered Japan in a big way. America is already helping China in a big way by cutting oil and iron supply and now they’re training the Chinese on how to fight against Japan. To Japan, their conquest had nothing to do with United States. It’s almost as if you’re quietly fighting the war, but hiding behind the actual battle grounds. In the summer of 1941, the United States and Japan underwent negotiations to see if the U. S. would resume oil, and iron trade with Japan. The offer was that if Japan retreat north of the Great wall, leaving mainland China to the Chinese, they would resume the oil and iron trade with Japan. The negotiations with America did not go smooth at all. The U. S. dragged out the negotiations which really puts Japan in a tough situation. â€Å"The Japanese were tired of negotiations with the United States. They wanted to continue their expansion within Asia but the United States had placed an extremely restrictive embargo on Japan in the hopes of curbing Japan’s Aggression. † It seemed as if the U. S. prolonged the negotiations in hopes for them to run out of resources. This kept Japan in a desperate position. The result of all this is the attack on Pearl Harbor. Was it a surprise attack? No. America was already involved in the war. You can say America was involved indirectly with the war but cutting off supplies to Japan and then supplying China with war training, is direct involvement into the war. It is a very one sided involvement against Japan. Pearl Harbor can be said to have happened for many reasons but what is clear is it was invoked by the United States making war related decisions and war related actions. The attack came as a surprise when it should have been expected.

Structuralism And Edward Titchener Psychology Essay

Structuralism And Edward Titchener Psychology Essay Edward Titchener was a famous psychologist who was born in Chichester, England in 1867. He studied physiology, classics, and philosophy at Malvern College and Oxford University before pursuing his doctorate degree in clinical psychology at the University of Leipzig (King, Viney, Woody, 2009). While at the University of Leipzig, Titchener studied under Wilhelm Wundt, a psychologist who is known as the father of experimental psychology (Schultz Schultz, 2011). After Titchener completed his doctoral degree in Germany, he attempted to obtain a job in England, but was not successful in doing so. He ended up earning a job at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York as a professor of psychology. At the age of 28, Titchener earned the title of full professor at Cornell (King et al., 2009). While at Cornell, Titchener published eight books, over 60 articles, and translated much of Wundts work into English (Schultz Schultz, 2011). As the head of one of the most rigorous doctoral program in the United States, he supervised over 50 students in the clinical psychology program at Cornell (King et al., 2009). Titcheners first student who graduated was Margaret Floy Washburn, who later became famous for her work in comparative psychology, which is the study of human behavior in relation to animals and other species (King et al., 2009). In a time period when most schools would not accept women into their programs, Titchener had 19 women graduate under his supervision. This was the most of any other male psychologist in his generation (Hergenhahn, 2008). Titchener structured the doctoral program at Cornell based on the German model, which included an intense mixture of lab research and independent work. While his students worked independently, he was heavily involved in helping them out with their research. Titchener was described as having a powerful personality, a strong character, and a paternalistic way with his students (King et al., 2009). Wundt and Titchener both believed in using introspection to discover the mental elements of human experience. Both of these scientists also believed that identifying and classifying sensations and feelings were an essential part of understanding the human experience (Chung Hyland, 2012). However, Titchener felt images were a category of mental elements, and Wundt did not. Both Wundt and Titchener used an experimental approach in their work. However, Wundt believed that psychology cannot only be studied as an experimental science. He felt that psychology should also be studied through historical analyses and naturalistic observation (Chung Hyland, 2012). In addition, Wundt believed that the methods used to study psychology could be utilized to describe social customs, religion, myths, morals, art, law, and language (King et al., 2009). Titcheners view was more rigid in that he only believed that psychology could be studied in the laboratory through evidence-based methods. Another di fference between Titchener and Wundt was that Wundt believed that physical events could be explained by antecedent events, and that higher psychological processes could not be studied in the laboratory (Schultz Schultz, 2011). Titchener only studied psychology through introspection, focusing on internal processes (Hergenhahn, 2008). Titcheners goal for psychology was to make it an accepted science, classified in the same category as physics and chemistry (King et al., 2009). He firmly believed that psychology should be studied in a laboratory, and that studying psychology was no different than studying physics, chemistry, and other hard sciences. Titcheners view on psychology was called Structuralism. He believed that human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors could be charted on a table as elements are on the periodic table. Titcheners view was reductionistic in that he did not feel it was important to understand how the parts of the mind worked together as a whole, but just the individual parts themselves. He felt that if each part could be understood then all one would need to do is to learn how these parts interact to conclude in a thought or behavior. Structuralism had five main goals for psychology; 1) to study it using specific methods, 2) to provide more definitions in the field of psychology, 3) to use it to make assumptions about more general philosophical issues, 4) to make connections between the physical sciences and psychology, and 5) to prove that psychology should be in the same category as the hard sciences. Titchener believed that all science begins with experience, and that without this, there could be no cognition or knowledge. He felt that experiences could have various points of view depending on the person who is experiencing the situation. Titchener believed that the main difference between the accepted physical sciences and psychology was that psychological experience was dependent on human judgment, and the other physical sciences were not dependent on human experience. While Titchener had many goals for psychology, he identified the current problems with psychology, and why it was not an accepted science. Titchener believed that the basic elements of experience needed to be identified and categorized. Next, understanding how each element interacts with another was essential to understanding human experience. Finally, causal relations between experiences needed to be identified. Titchener believed that the method of studying psychology was not different than any other science. While hard scientists used inspection to make many of their observations, Titchener called the observation by psychologists introspection. While many criticized introspection due to its subjective nature, Titchener firmly believed introspection could be objective if individuals were formally trained in the practice. Introspection was a scientific form of observation in Titcheners eyes. According to Titchener, observation is considered scientific if it has three properties; 1) one can isolate the experience, 2) the experience can be varied, and 3) the experience can be repeated. Titchener believed that the senses were the key access points to the mind. One of his specific goals was to identify mental elements connected to each sense. After he identified each element, Titchener wanted to categorize the elements. The three mental elements that Titchener identified were: 1) affections, which were emotions, 2) images, which were ideas, memories, and thoughts, and 3) sensation, which related to perception. He believed that all sensations had four characteristics; 1) quality, which was the main descriptor, 2) intensity, which was the strength or amount, 3) clearness, which was how clearly the sensation could be identified, and 4) duration, which was the duration of the sensation. The mental elements could have more than these four characteristics, but all had these. The only mental element that did not have all four was affections because Titchener did not believe that emotions were distinct or easy to identify. Titchener had a unique view on the mind and body rel ationship. Titchener believed that the mind and body influence each other, but that they were two different views of the same experience. According to him, the mind and body were parallel and never physically interacted, but one could influence the other. Some historians classified Titchener as a psychophysical parallelist, but this was controversial. This may have been thought to be controversial because s true parallelist would never say that the mind and body could influence one another in any way. Another unique aspect to Titcheners opinion on the mind and body relationship was that he did not believe in commonsense interactionism. This was likely due to his empiricist nature that everything had to be objectively studied in a lab setting. Titchener influenced many aspects of psychology that are important today. The first area of psychology that Titchener was interested in was attention. He separated attention into two categories; primary and secondary. Primary attention was passive and involuntary. It was influenced by intense stimuli, and thought to be related to novel and sudden stimuli. According to Titchener, secondary attention was active and voluntary. This involved attention under situations in which one needs to actively concentrate when distractors are in the environment. Titchener felt that this was related to advanced stages of development, and that infants were not capable of secondary attention. Another area of psychology that Titchener was interested in was associations. Titchener wanted to analyze how the mental elements of human experience interact; therefore, understanding associations was important to him. Titchener appreciated how philosophers such as Aristotle, Hobbes, and Bain placed a large emphasis on association. Titchener proposed that all association can be broken down to the law of contiguity. He felt that every law of association involved contiguity. Titchener also believed that emotions do not play an important part in association. Titchener stated, feelings only play a role by virtue of their sensory and imaginal components, and not their affective character (Cite). Titchener thought highly of Ebbinghauss work with nonsense syllables in regard to understanding association, but he felt that Ebbinghaus was missing an important component, intrinsic meaning. Titchener believed that personal impressions and associative processes operate together, and they cannot be separated. Titchener understood that intrinsic processes in humans are impo rtant, and cannot be left out when studying association. A third area of psychology that Titchener studied was meaning. Titchener believed that meaning, from a psychological perspective, had everything to do with context. In his opinion, meaning was a combination of the laws of attention and the laws of the connection of sensations. Titchener believed that everything humans see and experience had a context and a background. He understood that when individuals process things, memories of their past experiences play a large role in how they interpret what they experience. Titchener felt that the context of a situation or object was the psychological equivalent of its actual meaning. Interestingly, he noted that humans frequently had difficulty in identifying their own contexts when doing introspection. Emotion was another area that Titchener was interested in studying. In the area of emotion, Titchener had a problem with the James-Lange theory, which states that humans experience emotions based on how the body behaves. For example, when we see a bear, we run, and then become afraid. There were a number of reasons why Titchener had a problem with this theory. First, he believed it was not a novel theory, in that Descarte and Spinoza discussed physical origins of emotions. Next, Titchener felt that there were specific flaws in this theory. He argued that physical changes in the body may look exactly the same for different emotions. For example, when somebody is crying, it could be tears of joy as opposed to tears of despair. In addition, Titchener felt that bodily sensations were too simple of an explanation for emotions, which are complicated and not easily defined. He wrote in detail about how difficult categorizing emotions was, and stated that most theorists that attempt to understand and classify emotions do it subjectively, and their theories a re not scientific. Toward the end of Titcheners career, he became frustrated with his inability to identify and quantify all of the mental processes in human experience. Instead of having three main elements (Images, sensation, and affections), he proposed that affect was simply a byproduct of sensations images and sensations. Specifically, Titchener believed that affect may have been a form of sensation on a spectrum from pleasant to unpleasant. In addition, he proposed that images may have been a type of sensation. Titchener separated himself from trying to identify and classify all mental processes, and grew to feel that human experience was more abstract and on a spectrum. Titcheners Structuralism eventually was overtaken by behaviorism for a number of reasons. It was hard to defend introspection as an objective, scientific method. It was thought that individuals may not accurately report what they feel and experience. Next, structuralism placed no weight on psychological development, personality, abnormal behavior, learning, individual differences, evolution, and practicality. Behaviorism focused on what could be observed, and the relationship between external events and behavior. This lead to a great understanding in learning, performance, and the origin of behaviors. Most importantly, the methods of behaviorism were practical, quantifiable, measurable, classifying them as credibly scientific. Behaviorists criticized Structuralists for focusing too much on the internal, which cannot be observed. Behaviorists the studied cause and effect of behavior focusing on external events in the environment. This was more practical and effective than methods such as introspection. While Titcheners structuralism was too rigid to survive, it paved an important path in the field of psychology for its future. He was the first to fight a fight that has gone on for years, making psychology classified as a true, empirically-based science. Titchener also touched on areas in psychology that are crucial in the field today such as attention, association, meaning, and emotion. While he was not never able to create a periodic table of the mental elements of experience, his empirically-based methods are used today in many areas of psychology.

The Praying Mantis Essay -- essays research papers

The Praying Mantis (Mantis Religiosa) Contents Introduction Classes First Things First Key Features Basic Features Diet & Combat Style Reproduction Growth & Development Self-Defense Cultural Significance Praying Mantis Kung-Fu INTRODUCTION "Praying Mantis" is the name commonly used in English speaking countries to refer to a large, much elongated, slow-moving insect with fore legs fitted for seizing and holding insect prey. The name, "Praying Mantis" more properly refers to the specific Mantid species Mantis Religiosa or the European Mantis, but typically is used more generally to refer to any of the mantid family. The name is derived from the prayer-like position in which the insect holds its long, jointed front legs while at rest or waiting for prey. It is also called the "preying" mantis because of its predatory nature. CLASSES Many questions have risen regarding the praying mantis. Such questions include how many different species there are in the animal kingdom. Estimates range from 1500 to 2200 different mantid species WORLDWIDE. The most common figure given, though, is about 1800. The ways the Mantid's are classified in the Animal Kingdom. There is agreement that the collection of mantid species make up the Mantidae family of insects. The Mantidae family, in turn, is part of the order/suborder Mantodea that includes a variety of mantid-like species. But the existing literature does not reflect a clear consensus about what insect order Mantodea belong in. Some have placed Mantodea in the Dictyoptera Order-with the roaches. Others place Mantodea in the Orthoptera Order-with crickets and grasshoppers. Finally, some believe that Mantodea constitute their own independent order of insects. There seems to be an emerging consensus around this position. FIRST THINGS FIRST The Mantis Religiosa was first named such and classified by the inventor of the modern system of biological taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus. The three common species of mantids in North America are the European mantis (Mantis religiosa), the Chinese mantis (Tenodera aridifolia sinensis), and the Carolina mantis (Stagmomantis carolina) distinguishing features of these three species: Size The Chinese mantis is the largest of the three, reaching lengths of three to five inches. The European mantis, however, is a little sm... ...s while striving for food and existence did not reveal us its secrets, we would never develop this new style." The abbot replied: "You are right! In order to perpetuate the memory of the source, we shall call this style "The Gates of Praying Mantis" (Tang Lang Men). Wang Lang and the abbot developed twelve characters - guiding principles of the praying mantis fighting technique: zhan (contacting), nian (sticking), bang (linking), tie (pressing), lai (intruding), jiao (provoking), shun (moving along), song (sending), ti (lifting), na (grabbing), feng (blocking), bi (locking). Also they developed formal sets of praying mantis technique, such as: Beng bu (crushing step), Lan jie (obstruction), Ba zhou (eight elbows), Mei hua lu (plum blossom technique) and Bai yuan tou tao (white ape steals the peach). However, this new style for a long time was a privilege of the taoist monks of the Lao Shan taoist religious community and it was kept as a part of the secret taoist doctrine and closed to lay people. Wang Lang, for the rest of his days, lived in the taoist temple practicing self cultivation, developing Praying Mantis boxing and following the way of the Tao..."

The Psychology Behind the Serial Killer Essay -- Psychological Essays

The Psychology Behind the Serial Killer Creeping around the shadowy house, the predator found its prey waking to strange sounds. The victim lay facedown, with a sweating forehead pressed fearfully into the pillow, silently praying the noises would just go away. Suddenly the victim found himself straddled and pinned to the bed. He was unable to scream for help due to the pressure of the handle of a pick-axe against his throat, preventing any breath from escaping, much less any sound. The victim struggled beneath the weight of the assailant. The scant light from the sodium-arc street light outside cast a peculiar silhouette on the walls of the darkened room, projecting an image that looked oddly like that of a cowboy saddled upon a bucking bull at a rodeo. Struggling to dismount the attacker, the victim felt the piercing blows of the sharp point of the pickaxe, succumbing to death only after receiving eleven stab wounds to the chest and throat. The thrill of the kill was stimulating enough that, when interviewed later, the murderer reported â€Å"popping a nut,† that is, becoming so sexually aroused by the event, to the point of having an orgasm (Pearson, 1998). Does this sound like the heinous acts of Jeffrey Dahmer, Jack The Ripper, or Ted Bundy? How about the petite, pretty, fawnlike, Texas teen named Karla Faye Tucker? A woman? A killer? A sexual predator? Never before had such a thing been heard of, until Miss Tucker. Typically, when one thinks of serial killers, such images as Son of Sam, John Wayne Gacy, or the Boston Strangler, come to mind. Though these men do indeed fit the description, there are many myths and misconceptions surrounding the definition of serial killer, first and foremost that serial ... ...1998). Essential criminology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Monahan, J. & Steadman, H. (1984). Crime and mental disorder: Research in brief. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. Pearson, P. (1998). When she was bad: How and why women get away with murder. New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. Redl, F. & Toch, H. (1979). The psychological approach to crime, in Toch, H. (Ed.). Psychology of Crime and Criminal Justice. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Redl, F. & Wineman, D. (1951). Children who hate. New York: Free Press. Ressler, R. K. & Shachtman, T. (1997). I have lived in the monster. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Severence, L., Goodman, J., & Loftus, E. (1992). Inferring the criminal mind: Toward a bridge between legal doctrine and psychological understanding. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 20. 107-120.

Ethics and Morality Essay

â€Å"In philosophy we have a problem knowing the origin of right and wrong, there are various theories and ideas but we do not seem to have a definite answer to this question. † By Jamee Ford In life people are brought up in different homes, surrounded by different people and are taught different ways of life. As we grow up we are taught the difference between what is considered right and what is considered wrong, which is based on what is socially acceptable. We learn from a young age how we are expected to behave, the rules we have to abide by given from family and the morals we should have and grow up with. In this society it is difficult to find the origin of right and wrong for there are so many theories and ideas, but yet there is no definite answer. I believe morality comes from us citizens, the law, our feelings and our religion can give a certain indication to how we set our values, but I belive it is an objective fact that what is said to be wrong is wrong and what is said to be right is right. A minority of people believe that morality comes from God. These people have a lot of faith and get their morals and understanding of right and wrong from their belief in god and their bible. For example in the Bible, there are the 10 Commandments, a list of what is acceptable and unacceptable according to God. But what if we don’t believe in god, where would our sense of right and wrong come from? If we can’t change people’s options and feelings on what is right and wrong just by saying that it is acceptable or unacceptable, then why is it okay to say God can. Without god, would their still be morality? Because if god made it acceptable to kill other people, that still wouldn’t make it okay, so I believe this theory is unproven and morality and our right and wrongs can’t come from this theory. Another theory that has brought to the attention of the origin of right and wrong is The ‘Feeling Theory’ and the ‘Boo-hoorah’ theory. The feeling theory is an example of how morality does come from us. We make things right or wrong by approving or disproving of them. If a person has certain feelings about another person’s actions, it is saying something about them. If they disprove of an action, it is considered morally wrong to that person. This theory is people making a claim about what they think; they are claiming whether the action is right or wrong. The ‘Boo-Hoorah Theory’ is another example of how morality comes from us but involves expressing what we think is right or wrong rather than making a claim about it. Something is neither true nor false and according to this theory there is no fact of the matter just an expression of what the person observing thinks. The feeling theory and the boo-hoorah theory are both wrong for everyone is different and raised differently with different beliefs (everyone has different feelings). So technically one person can truly believe that it is okay to kill while another says it’s not okay, these two people are contradicting one another which rules out both theories. Some children are brought up in an abusive home environment; does this mean that morally they think its okay to treat people differently based on how they were raised? All people are raised in a different environment, under different circumstances so if morality comes from us then morality would have to include a whole lot of different views. Another important theory is that morality and our right and wrongs come from the law. Morality and the law often correspond, our morals are what we consider right and wrong, While the law is what has been decided as right and wrong for us. Both murder and stealing are things we consider morally wrong and are also against the law. In the perfect world we all want the law to coincide with morality, but in reality most likely will never be like that. For example drugs are illegal and the law will not accept any sort of behaviour involving drugs, but in some cases people justify that is morally acceptable to deal drugs use it for personal use because of financial situations and pleasure. So they morally justify it in their own head for it to be okay. Even though morality can be guided by the law, helping us understand the differences between right and wrong, morality can’t come from the law, for there are a lot of things the law accept but us civilians see it as wrong. As we can see morality cannot come from the above theories, for they all leave the question of the origin of right and wrong UN answered. I believe that morality comes from us and that things are right and wrong anyway. I believe G. E Moores theory of the extra fact (the six sense) that can detect wrongness. I truly believe this for it is true that there is that something inside of us, guiding us and helping us know what is right and wrong. We don’t necessarily have to be taught about all the wrongs in life to just get that gut feeling that mugging an elderly person is just wrong, why do we feel that? Why don’t we do it? It is because it is something that is just there. Also everyone in the world is different, we all come from different backgrounds and everyone has been brought up differently, in different environments. So therefore we all have different feelings and beliefs, for someone can truly believe that stealing is acceptable, when another thinks it is wrong. Morality is based on how you feel and how you treat people, expecting the same in return; you wouldn’t want someone to hurt you, so why would you want to hurt them. There are no proven facts to where right and wrong comes from but it is something that is just there. It changes over time, and things that were once believed as right are now seen as wrong. So therefore we cannot place judgements for we don’t know what morality and right and wrong will be seen as in ten years time, it’s based you as a person.

Mesopotamian and Egyptian Culture on the Creation of the Old Testament

The Bible has been around for so many years now, that’s why most people think that it is the most comprehensive book on ancient history. For some, it is even the basis for the creation of other scriptures of other religion, as well as the creation of other religions. However, record shows that there are some important details that is the same in the Bible, the Old Testament with the writings of other culture. This means that there are some significant parts of the holy book that might have been patterned with the writings in other religions or cultures.This means that no matter how old the Bible is, its creation has been influenced by other culture’s and other religion’s writings. The Epic of Gilgamesh Gilgamesh, the Sumerian King from the city of Uruk who lived and ruled around 2500 years B. C. There are no concrete relations of relating the account on Gilgamesh with human history, other than that it was passed through word of mouth some 3,700 years ago – around 2100 B. C. as a part of the oldest works of literature that man knows of which is The Epic of Gilgamesh.As compared to the part of the Book of Exodus wherein Moses liberates the Hebrew slaves out of Egypt, it would be around 1300-1200 B. C. if ever it actually existed. But with these dates, that would make the stories of the Epic of Gilgamesh be around 800-900 years older than that of the Old Testament’s Book of Exodus. This is to build upon the facts of which of them comes first, so that it is easier to tell which of them adopts the ideas of whom. Gilgamesh seemed to have encountered a great flood as well, in The Epics of Gilgamesh.It was when Utanapishtim confided to Gilgamesh about an old city where the gods might reside. It has been moved by the Greater Gods so that they can flood out the whole region to purge the evil-doers. This is much like the Great Flood which was inflicted by God in order to punish the human race. There were also groups of people who were sp ared, those who were given a warning before the punishment was actually inflicted. They were carefully instructed on what ways they will be spared and what they have to do for that matter.Noah was to build an ark with specific dimensions and materials, as for Gilgamesh, he was instructed to tear down a house and build a large boat with a roof. The similarities are obvious. They were both instructed to load up their boats with all animal life forms that they can find. Gilgamesh is considered to be the Babylonian Noah who has lived his purpose and took part in purging the world of sinful elements. The great flood will end all lives on earth, and the only thing that would save them is through constructing a huge ark.This ark will also be filled with all types of animals for them survive the flood. These facts could mean that the part of the Bible telling about Noah could be an adaptation of the earlier Epics of Gilgamesh, as manifested by their similarities in content. Hammurabiâ€℠¢s Laws The sixth king of the Babylonian Dynasty, King Hammurabi, existed some time between 1792 to1750 B. C. and is the known author of the Code of Hammurabi. His existence was about 300 years earlier than that of Moses, the one who liberated the Hebrew slaves from their Egyptian masters, the one has been shown the Ten Commandments of the Lord.Again, this is to establish which comes first, who could’ve copied whom, in the context of Moses and King Hammurabi. The fist concept was on the respect for parents, which established the importance of the family, the most basic unit of daily life. According to Hammurabi, there should always be respect to one’s parents. If a son has struck his father, then the appropriate punishment would be to cut-off his arms. In Mosaic law, death awaits for those who cursed their father and mother and acted stubbornly or rebelliously. Another important aspect would the vitality of marriage.According to Hammurabi, it is ok to send away oneâ₠¬â„¢s wife as long as the husband provides sustenance for their children to be raised properly. On the other hand, Mosaic Law allowed divorce on the grounds that when a spouse is found indecent or unfaithful. Both suggested death for both man and woman if ever they get caught committing adultery. Both has also forbade incest, wherein the punishment would be severe and would more or less be death. Another aspect that showed relevant similarities was on slavery. Both Hammurabi and Mosaic laws permitted to own slaves.However, they are also held liable with the death of any of their slaves. They are the ones who are responsible for their slaves’ actions. Another point of similarity is regarding theft. These cases are not to be treated lightly for both the Mosaic and Hammurabi’s laws. Mosaic law states that for those proven to have stolen something, they must return it five folds if it was killed and if it was alive, it should be returned. Meanwhile, for Hammurabi, it would depend whether thirty or ten times over, depending on the social status.However, if one is caught on the act of robbery, then punishment would be death. The one that manifests great similarity was their point on the laws regarding physical injury. For Mosaic law, if the injury was not serious, the guilty person is fined and the money will be given to the one who the damage was done to. But if the injury was serious, just like what Hammurabi said, it was right to take life for life, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Hymn to Aton The Old Testament has also borrowed some texts from important Egyptian texts.The Hymn to the Great God Aton showed some relevant similarities with praises for the Lord, thanking him for all His blessings. Some passages on Psalms are the same with tomb scriptures in the tomb of some relevant figures in Egyptian history to have ever existed. It may be a coincidence, but to bear almost similar thoughts on the same concepts would be nearly impossible. Sina i Covenant The Sinai Covenant, as mediated by Moses, can be considered as the last defining moments in the priestly history of the bond which is formed the divine entity and the human beings.The main components and proponents of this covenant are the brave people of Israel, and were however hampered by the laws and regulations being set by other books like Exodus and Leviticus. So, order to show their grateful nature, they have assigned a whole day for worship. It is the Sabbath day which is also the sign o that covenant, used to keep and uphold the laws. Having this Sabbath day is common for many cultures. This is because people devoted time and effort to their gods, that’s why they have to assign certain days for worship to the Lord. This is also a way to check on everyone’s faith in the religion that they belong to.

How to Reduce Electricity Usage

Electricity is one of primary needed of human being in this time; most of equipment in the world uses electricity . Now Indonesia is facing a serious problem because the over usage of electricity and the capacity of electricity is deficiency. The needs of electricity is increase every year, in this situation reduce usage of electricity is very important.Most highest electricity usage time is between 5 pm to 10 pm , this time is the best time for reduce or avoid the usage of heavy electricity consuming equipments like water heater, computer, refrigerator and etc. There are several steps involved in reducing electricity usage. First, use the saver energy lamp. Lamp is absorbing more electricity power than other equipment; light has longer usage than other equipment, especially for incandescent lamp. Many people still using incandescent lamp at their house, particularly for villager.They use incandescent lamp because is cheaper than the saver energy lamp like Phillips lamp for example, maybe it is more expensive than incandescent lamp, but the saver energy lamp have longer usage lifetime than incandescent, and it is brighter than incandescent lamp. But actually incandescent lamps have bigger power consumed than other lamp, and 19% of electricity is absorbing by lamp. â€Å"Incandescent lamps are marketed in various forms and are available for voltage (voltage) of work that range from 1. 5 to 300 volts of electricity required volt. Incandescent lamp to produce a bright light is bigger than any other artificial light sources like fluorescent lamps and diode light, then gradually in some countries began to be restricted circulation of incandescent lamps† (1) Second, switch off all the electricity equipment when not in use. Many people forget for switch off the equipment went they leave, they just left it in the on condition and that really waste the electricity.The standby mode just decreases electricity usage of the device, but it still absorbing the electric ity power. To avoid this happened, better if use automatically off timer on television, air conditioner, and etc, it will switch off the equipment automatically and reduce wasting electricity. Third, do not use the heavy electricity equipments from 5 pm until 10 pm. In this time, the user of electricity is the highest usage number. One of the wasting electricity causes is because using heavy electricity equipment.Like ironing or use washing machine. It can increase the usage of electricity, better if using this kind of equipment at the daylight and use it when the clothes already pile up and that is really save the electricity power. â€Å"If 10 million house users can save as big as 50 watt during 5 pm until 10 pm, we can save electricity power 2500 million watt hour (2500 MWh). If each 1 KWh electricity needs 0,3 liter diesel , that means we were saving 750 kiloliter diesel in 5 hour. † (2) Last, use sunlight and wind at daylight as useful as possible.Sunlight can dry laund ry naturally without use dry machine, dry machine absorb twice time bigger electricity power than when washing clothes. And open all the windows in the house, so the sunlight can come in and we do not need lamp as the lighting. Sunlight also can be changed to the synthetic electricity with the solar panel, that why use sunlight is really useful. Besides that Turning off air conditioner or fan and use wind as the change, it will reduce much electricity power.By doing this several steps, the ways to save electricity usage will be easier. It also can help government to resolve the deficiency electricity problem. Besides that, it can decrease the electricity payment too. And many advantages can be reaching, like increase the lifetime of equipment (because it not use often) and reducing global warming. And this is really useful for the better future.

Cell phone use while driving: a literature review and recommendations Essay

1. Introduction Cellular telephones (cell phones) were first introduced in the United States in the mid-1980s, and their use has since experienced explosive growth. Today there are more than 262 million cell phone subscribers, representing 84 percent of the United States population. Cell phone technology has become very useful for people on the move, which is demonstrated by surveys that show that the majority of users reported using their phones while driving. Cell phone use by drivers, although difficult to quantify, has been estimated through observational data by the federal government at six percent of drivers in 2007 (IIHS, 2006). This rate means that at any moment during the day, one million passenger vehicles in the United State are being driven by people on hand-held cell phones. Further analysis of these statistics show that women are more likely to be on their phones while driving; eight percent of women use cell phones while driving compared to five percent of their male counterparts. Also of importance, this data found that young drivers (16-24 years old) were most likely to be on their cell phones at 10 percent compared to six percent of those aged 2569 and one percent of drivers 70 and older (see Figure 1). Public perception of the dangers of cell phone use while driving seems to coincide with common sense and experience, but common practice does not. In a survey done by Nationwide Insurance (IIHS, 2008), four out of five surveyed cell phone owners admitted to driving while distracted. Even though almost half of the surveyed people consider cell phone use to be the most dangerous distraction, 98 percent of the drivers consider themselves to be safe drivers. An interesting result of the survey was that almost two-thirds of cell phone owners say they were expected by family, friends or employers to always be reachable by phone or other communication device. Among young drivers in this survey, 40 percent said they send or read text messages along with other activities while driving in order to â€Å"remain connected† (IIHS, 2008). Another survey of only teenage drivers conducted by State Farm Insurance, found that only 25 percent viewed cell phone use while driving as dangerous. Almost 80 percent, however, recognized that texting on cell phones while driving was risky (IIHS, 2008). The rate at which young drivers are most likely to be using cell phones while driving, along with their attitude towards the perceived risk of using such devices, is concerning because this group is already at the highest risk for collisions even without these distractions. A survey conducted by AAA and Seventeen magazine found that 46 percent of drivers 16 and 17 years old said that they text message while driving. This is a profound statistic because 37 percent of the same teenagers said that they believed that text messaging was the most dangerous driver distraction (Quain, 2007). 2. Quantifying Cell Phone Usage and Crash Risk Drivers’ attentiveness has been a concern since the invention of the automobile. As technology increases, the number of driver distractions increases. Each year, more than 42,000 people are killed, more than 3 million are injured, and more than 6 million collisions occur on roads in the United States (IIHS, 2006). Estimates have attributed between 30-50 percent of collisions to distracted drivers, resulting in huge amount of societal cost (Cohen, 2003). Although common sense and experience tells us that using cell phones while driving is dangerous, a number of studies are devoted to quantifying the exact risk associated with using a cell phone while driving. Since the mid-1990s, around 120 studies have attempted to validate a common conception: using a cell phone while driving is a distraction and therefore increases crash risk (IIHS, 2008). The literature on this subject investigates various relationships between cell phone use and accident risk. These studies can be separated into three general groups: epidemiological studies, experimental studies, and real-world studies. Epidemiological studies examine real-world accident data and cell phone records to draw conclusions based on the relationship between the two. Behavioral and experimental studies attempt to measure some cognitive effect of cell phone use on normal driving functions such as visual attention, following distance, reaction time, and other driving tasks. Real-world studies attempt to show how real-world situations either justify or disprove the other data. Before discussing selected studies, a summary of the general conclusions from each type of study is presented below: (a) Epidemiological Studies: Studies that analyze the relationship between cell phone use and increased crash risk using case studies where people have been in actual accident. Researchers have concluded that the use of cell phones while driving significantly increases the risk of collision (Ontario Medical Association, 2008). (b) Experimental and Behavioral Studies: These studies have been able to demonstrate that having a conversation on a cell phone is cognitively distracting and causes deterioration in driving performance. These studies also confirm the finding of the epidemiological studies that when driving performance is affected negatively, an increased crash risk is observed (Ontario Medical Association, 2008). (c) Real-World Studies: These studies are observations of test subjects that are monitored while in the field. Conclusions are drawn based on the observed data and are a reflection of actual events. The real-world studies have proven that the single most dangerous driver distraction is cell phone use. 2.1 Epidemiological Studies Epidemiological studies have attempted to measure the association of cell phone use with the risk of collision. They examine accident data and cell phone records to obtain a correlation, resulting in a relationship between cell phone use and accident risk. The following review focuses on three epidemiological studies that indicate cell phone use is associated with an increase risk of collision. 2.1.1 Cellular Phones and Traffic Accidents, 1996 In an early study in 1996, Violanti and Marshall used a case-controlled design study where they selected 100 random drivers that had been involved in crashes in the previous two years and compared them against another group of 100 randomly selected drivers who had not been involved in crashes in the previous 10 years. The study concluded that using a cell phone for 50 minutes per month resulted in a collision risk 5.59 times greater than not using a cell phone at all. In this study, the risk ratio is statistically significant, but the confidence limits were large. The obvious limitations of this study are: (1) small number of cell phone users in the sample; (2) selection bias; and (3) lack of evidence that the cell phone users were using their phones at the time of the collision. 2.1.2 Association between Cellular Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions, 1997 Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997) conducted the most quoted epidemiological study of cell phone use and increased crash risk in 1997. This research was a case cross-over design, where each subject served as his/her own control. The study included 699 drivers who had been involved in a collision and who owned cell phones. The authors used five-minute intervals of time before the time of the collision, and compared those against the same time on the previous day. The authors were able to conclude that the risk of collision was approximately four times higher than when the same subjects were not using their cell phones. The only significant limitation to this study is that collision times are estimated. There exists the possibility that cell phone use was a post-collision call instead of a pre-collision call. The authors made a conscious effort to eliminate calls that were precipitated by the collision by identifying 9-1-1 calls and through thorough questioning of the drivers. 2.1.3 Wireless Telephones and the Risk of Road Accidents, 2001 Laberge and Nadeau conducted an epidemiological study in Quebec in 2001. This study was based on a self-reported questionnaire from a sample of 36,079 participants, of which 35 percent had records with cellular telephone providers. Taking into account only age and year of observation, cell phone users had a 38 percent higher risk of collisions than non-users. Including additional constraints, such as miles driven and driving habits increased the relative risk by 11 percent for males and 21 percent for females. The authors also applied the case cross-over design used by Redelmeier and Tibshirani to their data. This method produced a relative risk of being in a crash while using a cell phone at 5.13 times that of a non-user. However, the authors concluded that this case cross-over design over-estimates the risk, and determined that a more realistic risk of collision is around 1.3-1.4 times that of a non-user. 2.2 Experimental and Behavioral Studies The majority of the literature reports on experimental and behavior studies examine the impact of cell phone use on the cognitive functions necessary for driving. Many of the experimental studies have correlated how cell phone use, including hands-free devices, while driving interferes with or degrades various aspects of driving. Because of the quantity of experimental and behavioral studies, only representative research is reviewed in the following four categories: (1) Field-of-View Studies; (2) Brain Research Studies; (3) Simulator Studies; and (4) Benchmark Impairment Studies. 2.2.1 Field of View Studies In 2003, Strayer’s reseach group at the University of Utah found that drivers who use cell phones are less able to process visual information. Based on the observations of participants in a simulator, the study was able to conclude that drivers conversing on cell phones increase their risk of collisions. The researchers attributed the increase in collision risk to a theory called â€Å"Inattention Blindness†. Inattention Blindness is summarized to be, â€Å"Even when participants [drivers] are directing their gaze at objects in the driving environment, they may fail to ‘see’ them because attention is directed elsewhere.† The study also found that the use of hands-free and hand-held cell phones equally impair the driver’s ability to see objects. The study found that â€Å"the disruptive effects of cell phone conversations on driving are due in a large part to the diversion of attention from driving to the phone conversation.† This diversion of attention also affects the driver’s ability to react to sudden event placing pedestrians and others at increased risk for injury (Strayer, 2003). In 2005, researchers from the Japanese Automobile Research Institute further examined the findings from the University of Utah report. The authors of this report agreed with the conclusions of the earlier report, but felt that a more direct assessment of the visual attention needed to be done to identify the exact amount of diversion from what the driver is looking at to the cell phone conversation. The authors conducted experiments with drivers on a simulator using the medically known physiological response â€Å"Binocular Fusion†. The results of this study show that, â€Å"engaging in hands-free phone conversation interferes with visual information processing. The increment of binocular gaze dissociation by conversing on a phone indicates that the driver’s attention is diverted from the external scenery to the conversation.† The purpose of the report was not necessarily to prove that speaking on a cell phone increases crash risk, but this relationship is inferred by the authors (Uchida, 2005). Figure 2 is extracted from Wood’s field-of-view study in 2006 that obtained similar results as the studies mentioned above. It demonstrates the number of errors drivers made while listening and responding to questions went up dramatically when compared against no distractions. 2.2.2 Brain Research Studies A 2005 Study by GM Corp., Wayne State University Medical School, and Henry Ford Hospital set a foundation for understanding how cell phone use by a driver influences the brain function. This study used Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Æ’MRI) and Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to locate essential brain activated structures and their corresponding dynamics. As discussed above, field-of-view studies generally depend on behavior observations to determine if the mind is focused on the road and thus fail to completely reflect what the brain may actually be doing. The authors suggest that there are situations where behavioral indicators will show that the mind is on the road, but in reality, it is not. With this understanding, the authors set out to uncover the exact neural mechanisms that are associated with distracted behaviors while driving. Putting participants in a simulator and monitoring their brain function, the authors were able to identify the major brain pathways involved in driving and distracted driving. This study set a foundation for determining and measuring how the brain reacts to distracted driving (Young, 2005). In 2007, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University conducted a study furthering the previous study by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Æ’MRI) to investigate the impact of concurrent auditory language comprehension on the brain activity when simultaneously exposed to a simulated driving experience. Participants operated a driving simulator, either undisturbed or while listening to statements they had to identify as true or false. This auditory language comprehension was designed to mimic talking on a cell phone. The participant’s brain activity was monitored during the simulations and was compared against the Æ’MRI scans of the undisturbed driver’s brain. The authors found that when participants experienced the dual-task condition, mental resources were taken away from areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks (see Figure 3). This occurred even though the areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks and auditory comprehension are different. The authors were able to make two conclusion based on their experimental data: (1) mental resources are diverted from driving tasks to 5 auditory comprehension regardless of other physical tasks; and (2) the deterioration of driving performance occurs because of a competition of mental resources in the brain between driving tasks and auditory comprehension (Just, 2008). Figure 3 Percentage Change in Signal Intensity for Five Functional Groupings of Cortical Areas (Source: Just, 2008) Spatial processing areas significantly decrease with the addition of the sentence listening task. 2.2.3 Simulator Studies In 2001, Strayer’s research group at the University of Utah submitted test subjects to different levels of distractions while driving in a simulator. The researchers were able to conclude that cellular phone conversations while driving caused the subjects to react slower to stimuli and perform tasks with considerably reduced precision. Specifically, while engaged in cell phone conversations the subjects were twice as likely to miss simulated traffic signals compared to when they were not distracted. These results were also qualified by showing that talking on a cell phone was more dangerous than when the driver was subjected to common in-vehicle distractions, such as the radio and books-on-tape. The researchers also wanted to determine if the reason the subjects missed the traffic signals was because they did not see them or because they were slow to respond to them. To determine this, the researchers examined the memory of the subjects after normal driving as well as distracted driving. The results indicated clear memory impairment after having been engaged in cell phone conversations. The researchers were able to conclude that active participation in a cell phone conversation while driving disrupted driving performance by diverting attention from driving tasks to a cognitive process. In a 2002 observational study by the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, researchers used a complex method of identifying specific cell phone users and non-users through in-field observations, and linking these people with their driving records. This method presents some obvious limitations or uncertainty about the user classification; however, the results corresponded well with other identifying methods. The driving records of the cell phone users had higher counts of moving violation citations over the previous four years, to include speeding, alcohol, failure to use seat belts, aggressive driving violations, and non-moving violations. Although the correlation between these violations and use of a cell phone is not scientifically proven by this study, it does likely reflect a difference in lifestyle, attitude and personality of the typical cell phone users; indicating they are inherently riskier drivers (Wilson, 2003). These simulator studies are consistent with a self-report survey conducted by the Traffic Injury Research Foundation. The authors of this report determined that people who use cell phones while driving were more likely to have received a traffic ticket in the last year, drive after drinking, and to consume greater quantities of alcohol when they drink. Again, these behavioral indicators cannot necessarily be directly linked to cell phone use; rather, they suggest a personality type who frequently uses a cell phone while driving (Beirness, 2002). 2.2.4 Benchmark Impairment Studies Innumerable studies have been able to prove the correlation between cell phone use while driving and an increased risk of crashing when compared to normal driving. What these studies have failed to do is show a comparison to known impairment levels. There have been at least three studies that compare the cell phone driver to a drunk driver at the per-se blood-alcohol concentration limit of 0.08 wt/vol. This blood alcohol concentration has been thoroughly studied and quantified as the limit at which the average driver will become incapable of safely operating a motor vehicle. Comparing the cell phone driver to a benchmark of this caliber becomes a solid comparison and explanation to how dangerous driving while on a cell phone really is. In a 2002 study by Burns et al., the authors designed a study to compare the impairment from handsfree and hand-held phone conversations to the decline in driving performance caused by alcohol impairment. Participants were given either an alcoholic beverage or a placebo drink and placed in front of a driving simulator that represented realistic driving tasks. The quantity of alcohol was determined from the participant’s age and body mass, and was closely correlated with the legal limit of .08 mg/ml blood alcohol concentration. The results of this experiment showed a clear substantial decrease in driving performance when using a hand-held phone, in comparison to the sober condition. Driving performance under the influence of alcohol was significantly worse than normal driving, but better than driving while using a phone, leading to a conclusion that driving while talking on a phone is more impairing then driving at the legal limit of alcohol. Strayer’s research group at the University of Utah published research comparing the cell phone driver and the drunk driver in 2003, and a revised report in 2006. The purpose of their research was to provide a direct comparison of the driving performance of a cell phone driver and an alcohol impaired driver in a controlled laboratory setting. These researchers used participants who were casual drinkers and compared their own sober driving, cell phone driving, and alcohol-impaired driving to themselves. This method of control seems to be more accurate than the previous studies’ process of comparing the same situations in different subjects. The researchers were able to conclude that both the intoxicated driver and the cell phone drivers’ driving profiles were different from the sober base-line. Cell phone drivers exhibited a delay in their response to events, had longer following distances, took longer to recover lost speed following braking, and were involved in more traffic accidents. Drivers in the intoxicated condition exhibited a more aggressive driving profile by following closer to the vehicle in front of them and braking harder. The researchers suggest the data indicates impairment or risk from cell phone use is as great as that of the intoxicated driver, but in different ways. The authors also noted that driving impairments associated with hands-free devices and hand-held devices were not significantly different, indicating that the impairment comes from a diversion of attention from the processing of normal driving tasks. 2.3 Real-World Studies Several real-world studies have been conducted and are being conducted to further validate the epidemiological and experimental studies. Our review indicates that the majority of these studies are funded in part by insurance companies or makers of driving performance enhancers. The most commonly cited real-world study involved 100 cars and 42,000 hours of driving time monitored by in-vehicle cameras and sensors over a one-year period. The study was conducted by the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute in 2006, and concluded that, â€Å"secondary task distractions† were the prime factor in collisions. The single biggest distraction leading to collisions was cell phone conversations, dialing, and sending text messages. The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute is conducting another study that involves 2500 drivers and will last three years (Bunkley). We have been able to identify several other current real-world studies that are underway. The studies are funded primarily by insurance companies, and we have been unable to obtain any information about them due to proprietary reasons (Olson, 2007; Robinson, 2008). 2.4 Police Accident Reports Since the studies prove the hypothesis that cell phone use while driving increases crash risk, quantitative analysis of crash causation data should reflect this. This, however, is not the case. The reasons that the real-world data does not match the experimental and epidemiological conclusions are due primarily to two factors. First, three states in 2001 and six states in 2002 provided a specific space on their uniform crash reports to indicate that the use of a cell phone had been involved in the collision. In addition, even with a space available on a police report to record cell phone involvement, the box may or may not be marked. The investigating officer has multiple responsibilities at an accident scene, including tending to injured, restoring traffic flow, completing the investigation, and issuing citations for criminal violations. Officer discretion plays a part in the completion of police reports; even if evidence of cell phone use is present, the officer may or may not indicate that cell phone use was a factor in the collision. A NHTSA study of North Carolina supports this analysis. The study concluded that the underreporting of crashes that are a result of inattention due to cell phone use is substantial. The portion of crashes that were reported to be due to inattention because of cell phone use was 1.5 percent which is significantly below the estimated value obtained in more comprehensive studies of 3050 percent (Cohen, 2003). Second, even if the collection of this data is a requirement for every state, it would likely still be inaccurate because of the public’s reluctance to report cell phone use to police. Because the risks of using cell phones while driving are becoming commonly known and more states are adopting laws to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving, the likelihood that an offender admit to using a cell phone to a police officer becomes less. In addition, a police officer’s reasonable investigation time does not allow for a comprehensive investigation of every crash to include determining the use of cell phones. This is more likely to be reserved for very serious crashes where serious injury and or loss of life were present. To help address the underreporting of crashes that are due to cell phone use, several federal agencies, national organizations, and state and local governments have worked to improve the data collection. In 2003, the national Governors’ Highway Safety Association released a revised edition of the Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC), which included changes that would help record the number of crashes associated with distracted driving. The changes, which were developed with the help of NHTSAS, the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, and numerous state and local agencies, define the information that should be collected at an accident scene. Included in the new criteria is that reports should include any information regarding distracted driving. The changes are designed to facilitate more accurate reporting of distracted driving, which in turn, will give policy makers and data analysts more concrete data from which to make conclusions (Sundeen, 2004). The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has also taken aim at the problem of cell phone use and its underreporting. In a press release in 2006, the NTSB acknowledged that cell phone use by driver’s results in a cognitive distraction that leads to an increase in accident rates. The same press release suggested that the remaining 20 states that at the time did not have driver distraction codes on their uniform accident reports add them (National Transporation Safety Board, 2006). In 2008, the NTSB made a press release that again emphasized the dangers of cell phone use by drivers by citing research conclusion that such activity reduces driving performance. The press release also indicated that the NTSB had added cell phone restrictions by commercial drivers to its 2009 list of most wanted safety improvements (National Transportaion Safety Board, 2008). 3. Cell Phones and Teenage Driver 3.1 Teen Drivers’ Collision Statistics Teen drivers are alarmingly prevalent in the collision statistics. In 2005, 4,544 teens ages 16 to 19 died of injuries sustained in motor vehicle crashes. In the same year, almost 400,000 motor vehicle occupants in this age group were hospitalized from injuries sustained in automobile crashes. Overall in 2005, teenagers accounted for 7 percent of the driving population, but they account for 14 percent of all fatalities. Young people ages 15-24 represent 14 percent of the U.S. population, but account for 30 percent of the motor vehicle injuries. The most concerning age group is the 16-19 year olds. Drivers in this age group are three times more likely to be killed in an automobile crash than people 25-64 years old (Lynch). As shown in Figure 4, crash risk is especially high during the first 6 months of unsupervised licensure (Lee, 2007). Understanding exactly why young drivers are so overly represented in the crash statistics is difficult to isolate, especially while the interactions between young drivers and new technology remains mostly unexplored. Even so, it is safe to conclude from the research that new drivers have difficulty with driving because of inexperience, risk-taking behavior, immaturity, and risk exposure (Lynch). Driving is a divided attention task requiring the driver to multi-task, which is a skill that one improves with experience. This is demonstrated also by figure four in the difference between the novice and learners (supervised) crash rates. The difference in crash rate is probably due to the restriction of exposure to risky situations and aid that is provided from the adult passenger assisting in much of the multi-tasking requirements. Figure 4 Crash rates for drivers under the supervision of an adult and during the first months of independent driving. (Source: Lee, 2007) A study by the Brain Trust Alliance published in 2006 suggests a possible explanation for why young drivers are overrepresented in crashes. The researchers found that the human brain continues to develop well past childhood into early adulthood, reaching maturity at around age 25 (see Figure 5). Different parts of the brain fully develop at different times. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe are areas of the brain that are still developing through adolescence and the teen years. The prefrontal cortex controls planning, working memory, organization, risk management, self restraint and emotional control. The parietal lobe controls spatial perception and vision which gives the ability to interpret location, speed and distance. The researchers concluded that understanding the brain development is valuable in understanding why young drivers are at risk and the limitations that should be placed on them to reduce the risk. Specifically, the researchers suggest that the time young drivers are under supervised driving needs to be extended to give them the time they need to comprehend the risks of driving and responses for common driving situations. 3.2 Teen Driver and Cell Phone Distractions Technological distractions that tend to distract drivers, such as making phone calls, watching videos, corresponding through email, text messaging, and selecting and listening to music, are become more prolific and are alarmingly most popular with the younger drivers. All of these technologies have the ability to distract the driver; however the cell phone has attracted the most attention. Text messaging among young driver is especially alarming since 46 percent of drivers 16-17 years old admitted to driving while texting and since it not only requires cognitive resources, but it takes eyes off the road (Quain, 2007). In a 2007 study at the University of Iowa, the researchers concluded about young drivers that, â€Å"A high rate of early adoption of new technology, peer pressure, risk-taking tendencies, poor ability to detect and anticipate hazardous situations, and underdeveloped vehicle controls kills all leave young drivers particularly vulnerable to the distractions posed by the increasing variety of infotainment systems† (Lee, 2007). 3.3 Supervised Driving and Parental Involvement Young drivers, especially those recently licensed, who use cell phones compound their risks; intervention of some type is needed. A survey conducted by Allstate in February 2007 of parents of teen drivers found the following: Most parents (55 percent) said they wished they had more time to teach driving safety to their teens. Parents have the ability to influence their teen children’s’ driving in ways that no one else can. The Allstate survey shows that parents feel that teaching children how to drive safely is their responsibility and wish they had more time to teach and supervise their children. Graduated Drivers Licenses, a program to facilitate more parental involvement in a newly licensed teens driving development, are becoming more common throughout the United States. These alone, however, are proving to be insufficient to reduce the increased crash rate of young drivers. Teen driving contracts have been emphasized in many states as a way for parents to passively maintain interest in their teens’ driving behavior. A teen driving contract typically is a signed contract between parent and a teen that specifies the rules, expectations, and responsibilities for safe driving. A typical safe driving agreement covers cell phone use while driving, speeding, driving at night, carrying passengers, as well as seatbelt use. The privileges set out in the teen driving contracts are designed to be reviewed periodically and may be updated depending on how the parents feel the teen is performing (Michigan Secretary of State, 2007). 4. Legislative Attempts to Prevent Driver Cell Phone Use Although young drivers present a particularly urgent situation when it comes to cell phone use while driving, the issue is also a risky one for adult drivers. Either way, the literature and research suggest that something needs to be done to reduce the loss of life and money associated with cell phone use while driving. Numerous efforts are underway to keep drivers safe, including efforts from federal, state, and local agencies, parent groups, and schools. Governments have made various attempts through legislation to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving. This review has identified three reports on legislative efforts designed to help reduce crashes resulting from cell phone use and they are presented below: 4.1 New York State 2001 Hand-Held Cell Phone Ban In 2001, New York became the first state to adopt a law that bans the use of hand-held cell phone devices by all drivers. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 2.3 percent. Immediately after to several months after the enactment of the law, the observed cell phone use dropped by approximately 50 percent to 1.1 percent. By March of 2003, the rate of cell phone use had risen back up to 2.1 percent which almost matches that of the pre-ban rate. Between December of 2001 and January of 2003, only about two percent of the traffic citations issued in New York were for cell phone use even though a survey conducted by NHTSA of New York drivers showed that 30 percent admitted to still using their phones while driving. A possibility for the decline in effectiveness is the decline in media attention and enforcement since its inception (IIHS, 2003). 4.2 District of Columbia Distracted Driving Safety Act of 2005 In July 2005, the District of Columbia enacted the Distracted Driving Safety Act which prohibits all forms of inattentive driving that result in the unsafe operation of a motor vehicle including hand-held cell phones. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 6.1 percent. Shortly after the law took effect, the usage rate dropped to 3.5 percent. Interestingly, when the usage rate was measured a year after the law it had risen to four percent, but was still significantly lower than the preban rate. The introduction of this law also followed the typical pattern where a new law is introduced, compliance is at its highest and as time passes, the compliance drops off. Although the rise in usage a year after the introduction of the law was not as significant as that of the New York ban, it was still present. One possibility for this less significant return to pre-ban usage levels is the District of Columbia’s reputation for strict enforcement (McCartt, 2007). 4.3 North Carolina Under 18 Ban of Mobile Communication Devices In December 2006, North Carolina enacted a law that prohibited the use of any mobile communication device by drivers younger than 18 years old. Cell phone usage was observed at high schools prior to the law and five months after the law took effect. The cell phone usage prior to the law was observed at 11 percent. Cell phone usage five months after the law took effect was observed at 11.8 percent. As a control, cell phone usage in the adjacent state of South Carolina was observed over the same period of time and cell phone use there was steady at 13 percent over the observation time. Researchers conducted interviews of teen drivers in which 50 percent of the surveyed teens reported using their cell phones (post-ban) if they had driven the day prior to the survey. The conclusion of the researchers was that the cell phone law had little effect on teenage drivers’ use of cell phones (Foss, 2008). 5. Distance-Based Insurance Polices Keeping drivers safe behind the wheel is becoming an ever increasing priority as evidenced by the many new and innovative approaches to the problem. Solutions are being sought and in some cases found in areas of science, engineering, biomechanics, state-of-the-art safety designs, etc. The following review is based on a relatively new insurance concept called distance-based insurance. Vehicle insurance is typically based on a lump sum pricing method which translates to a fixed cost for each consumer regardless of how many miles a vehicle is driven. A lump-sum insurance policy will result in the same premium across a similar demographic, assuming that other aspects such as age, gender, location, driving records, etc. are the same. Consumers will not see any reduction in price if they reduce their yearly mileage which results in lower risk. Since the risk of collision and other policy claim related losses are dependent on how many miles the vehicle is driven, it seems unfair to apply a lump-sum pricing scheme to such a complex situation (Bordoff, 2008). In a paper written by Litman (1997) he makes a profound analogy of this situation to the sale of gasoline. If gasoline was sold by the car-year, vehicle owners would be required to make one lump-sum payment at the beginning of the year. This payment would allow the owner to fill the vehicle up with gasoline unlimited times throughout the year. Prices would be based on the average consumers’ use of gasoline in his/her demographic. Litman suggests that this unlimited distribution of gasoline would perpetuate an increase in fuel usage resulting in more miles driven, overall vehicle costs, congestion, pollution and increased accident risk. Consumers who use less fuel than the average would find the system wholly unfair and unaffordable and would not use it. Consumers who used more than the average would be in favor of the system because of the benefits it offers them. This system is obviously unreasonable, and anecdotally explains the limitations of our current lump-sum insurance system. In response to this problem, a new distance-based insurance pricing method has been suggested and is being implemented in some places. Distance based insurance policies are variable and are based on the vehicle-miles driven instead of the current practice of lump-sum policies. These policies are designed to better reflect the risk of consumers, since claims are generally proportional to miles driven (Bordoff, 2008). Figure 6 represents the average 2003 distribution of expenditures for ownership of an automobile in the United States. The percentage paid in insurance costs is 21 percent, a significant 13 amount. The benefits of distance-based insurance policies are many, but most importantly is that they more accurately reflect the customers’ mileage-based risk and give many consumers an opportunity to proportionally reduce their insurance rates. Figure 6 Average 2003 Distribution of Expenditures for Automobile Ownership in The United States. (Litman, 1997) Similar to how distance-based insurance pricing has revolutionized the way insurance premiums are being evaluated, safety-based driving systems can revolutionize how driving habits are reflected in insurance premiums. For example, cell phone use while driving increased the risk of collision. If a driver were to voluntarily participate in a program that restricted his/her cell phone use while driving, thereby reducing his/her risk of collision, that behavior could be rewarded by a lower insurance premium. This same methodology could be applied to any risky driving practice (i.e. speeding, teen driving at night, etc.) as reported to an insurance company through reliable technological methods. This, much like distance-based policies, would more accurately reflect the consumers’ safety risk and could result in lower insurance rates. Those who choose not to participate in the program would have to assume the average risk and associated premiums. This program would be a huge incentive for people to participate and subsequently drive safely. 6. Technological Methods for Improving Driving Safety 6.1. Active Safety Features through Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Comm. To help avoid car accidents and minimize harmful effects of accidents, many automotive manufacturers aim to provide active safety features such as: forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications to name a few. The radar-based system can be used to help avoid or mitigate the effect of front-end collisions. A number of systems focus on how to utilize wireless vehicle-to-infrastructure communications to provide early warnings to drivers about potential hazards at intersections, where 40 percent of all traffic accidents and 20 percent of crash-related fatalities occur. Specific technologies designed to mitigate the use of cell phones by drivers are generally marketed toward the young driver because that is where the largest concern for safety is, as well as where the most potential improvements can be made. It is also the primary market because often these technologies require voluntary involvement where parents are more likely to involve their children than themselves. These devices are, relatively speaking, in their infancy. Many devices on the market seem to individually employ a portion of what is needed to be a complete and effective system, but each has its limitations. 6.2. GPS-based Driving Monitoring System Examples of a technologies used to monitor teens and provide a possible solution for talking while driving are the wide variety of Global Positioning System (GPS)-based monitoring systems. These systems use the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) network to log the vehicle’s location and speed at regular intervals and allow downloading of the data for further analysis. Some advanced monitoring programs provide over-speed alerts and/or send data to a central computer or system through a wireless communication network for tracking teen drivers in real-time. It should be remarked that, in addition to the use of teen driver tracking, these kinds of GPS tracking systems have been successfully used for commercial fleet tracking and network-wide traffic monitoring. Similarly, the windshield camera produced by DriveCam Inc. can record the driving behavior and transmit digital images to a central data server for further analysis. The above-mentioned (passive monitoring) systems, however, are not seamlessly integrated with cell phones, so none of them can actively prevent the use of cell phones even when the vehicle is in motion. They provide only an opportunity for the monitor to give post-violation advice and instruction to the teens, when it might be too late. 6.3. Cell Phone Based Context Identification Currently, mobile phone usage is no longer limited to making and receiving calls, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been widely supported in the next generation of mobile phones. For example, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been installed in iPhone 3G smart phones from Apple Inc., and 50 percent of Nokia mobile phones shipped in 2009 will be GPS-enabled. A number of studies aim to utilize embedded sensors in the next generation of mobile phones, specifically GPS and accelerometer sensors to discover and take advantage of contextual information such as user location, time of day, as well as the type of activity the user is involved in, such as walking, driving, or standing still. This contextual information can be used to alter the phone’s status creating a â€Å"smart† phone that is safer and/or more user friendly. Chen and Kotz (2000) provided a comprehensive survey on context-aware mobile computing research. They suggest that although context-awareness is a widely researched topic, there are still areas that could be further explored. The authors specifically highlight the need to further develop the awareness, communication, and use of context-based computing as having the most potential to benefit society. The application of contextual information to cell phones is critically important because it determines what the user is doing, and thereby when to alter the phone status. SenSay is one recent application (Siewiorek et al., 2003) that integrates contextual information with cell phone use. Combining a cell phone with sensory data, user information, and user history, the researchers were able to provide a context aware phone that improves its overall usability. For example, the phone is able to change ringer volume and vibration, and further provide dynamic phone alerts and call handling depending on the users’ activity. The real-world application of this device is limited because of peripherally needed devices, but the integration of this type of context sensing devices within phones holds great potentials. In a GSM or 3G networks, triangulation among two or more cellular towers, signal strength fluctuations, and changes to the current serving cell phone towers can be also used to estimate the context of cell phone users (e.g. study by Anderson and Muller in 2006). The result of context identification, including the speed of moving cell phones, can be used to distinguish driving vs. walking or remaining still. This contextual information can be used to prevent risky driving behaviors, such as talking while driving and texting while driving. However, as shown in a study by Smith et al. (2004), the existing cell phone-based speed estimation results are less accurate when compared to GPS-based methods. These results are exaggerated during periods of congested traffic or stop-and-go traffic on arterial streets. This review was able to identify various devices for sale that are marketed toward teen drivers all with the purpose of monitoring and or reducing poor driving habits. These devices are tools which parents can use to monitor, advise, and teach their children long after the learner and graduated driving experiences have passed. Several companies currently offering some of these devices were contacted and asked if there were any studies or research that had been done showing the effectiveness of their products. The companies responded that studies have been done, but that the results were proprietary because they had been financed by insurance companies. 7. Economic Analysis of Restricting Cell Phone Use Although there is sufficient data to prove that cell phone use while driving increases the risk of crashes, complete restriction of cell phones by drivers has been controversial in part because of the benefits consumers and society receive from these calls and because the exact number of crashes caused by cell phone use are unknown. Several researchers have attempted to quantity these values by comparing the total societal cost of crashes caused by cell phone use to the benefits society receives from the same. The results of three such studies are listed below: Hahn and Tetlock (1999): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $23 billion annually. Redelmeier and Weinstein (1999): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $300,000 annually. Cohen and Graham (2003): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a net societal loss of zero. The Cohen and Graham study was a re-analysis of the Hahn and Tetlock study with updated estimates and more comprehensive analysis. Because the exact numbers of crashes that are caused by cell phone use is unknown and it is difficult to quantify the value of cell phone use in society, these variables needed to be estimated in the analyses. The variability between the three estimates shows how the results are highly dependent on the estimation of these variables. In a Study by Martin et al. (2006), researchers analyzed the impact cell phone use by drivers had on traffic flow. A â€Å"car following behavior† was identified by simulated driving for both the non cell phone user and the cell phone user. The researchers then used these â€Å"car following behavior† models and through simulation and microscopic traffic modeling, were able to identify the impact that cell phone users had on the traffic stream efficiency. The research found that with different traffic conditions and varying percentages of cell phone users, cell phone usage while driving had a negative impact on traffic flow when traffic volumes were moderate or high. Converting these delays into monetary units, the researchers were able to project the cost of the delays caused by cell phone users throughout the entire United States highway network as significant. 8. Findings and Recommendations Distracted driving has been a public concern ever since the beginning of the automobile. Cell phone use by drivers is widespread. Intuitively, one understands that cell phone use while driving is distracting and dangerous, and many studies have proven that instinct to be true. Experimental and behavioral studies have drawn an unambiguous conclusion that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction leading to an increased risk of collision. Studies have also been able to quantify this risk as at least as dangerous as driving while impaired by alcohol at the legal limit of .08 mg/ml. Epidemiological examination of actual crash data compared against cell phone records provides confirmation that driving while using a cell phone increases the risk of collision. In the epidemiological studies reviewed in this paper, the increased risk of collision when using a cell phone while driving was found to be between 1.3 and 5.59 times greater than non-users. Real-world data, although scarce, has also confirmed that cell phone use while driving is the single largest driver distraction leading to collisions. Studies are mounting that show an obvious correlation between cell phone use while driving and increased crash risk. The association between cell phone use and increased risk of traffic crashes seems to be validated by epidemiological, behavior, experimental and real-world studies, but the actual number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is harder to determine. Because the exact number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is unknown, the likely financial savings to United States drivers for outlawing cell phone use while driving is also uncertain. Other important findings are listed as follows: (1) Government at all levels has tried to legislate a solution for this problem with poor results, (2) Young drivers are especially susceptible to the danger of cell phone use while driving because they are already overrepresented in the crash statistics, (3) Technology is intervening where legislation has failed to provide solutions to the problem of cell phone use while driving. To improve driving safety in general, and to prevent talking on cell phones while driving in particular, the following initiatives and innovations are critically needed. 1) Accurate reporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports The underreporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports, the best indicator of how many collisions are directly related to cell phone use, has proven to be significant. This is worrisome because many legislative efforts to stop the use of cell phones by drivers are based at least partly on this data. Legislative efforts in themselves have shown to be minimally effective to statistically ineffective in curbing the use of cell phones by drivers. Several government agencies have nonetheless continued seeking for some type of solution to this problem. 2) Technological solutions for accurately identifying driving mode of cell phone users A wide variety of research has been devoted to mobile phone-based context identification by GPS, triangulation, or signal strength. Despite considerable research efforts, the technology remains insufficient to properly distinguish the exact mode of cell phone uses such as driving, walking, or remaining still. Even with all the available location and movement data, it is still extremely difficult to distinguish if a cell phone user is driving a car, seating as a passenger, or riding a bus or train. Inaccurate context identification could lead to problematic disabling of the communication capability when a cell phone user is not driving a car. Additional research is still needed in the area of artificial intelligence to improve the context estimation accuracy. 3) Integrated driving monitoring system There are many products that have been designed to address the problem of cell phone use by young drivers. Some existing context based technologies are designed to passively monitor an individual’s driving by recording their movements and making them available for download at another time. Some advanced monitoring technologies allow for real-time alerts to be sent to a central computer or by text message through wireless communications. These technologies can give real-time information to parents about safety concerns, but fail to provide any way of actively preventing the dangers from happening. The need for a context based solution that also allows for active prevention of cell phone use while driving is apparent. 4) Safety-based insurance policies Distance-based insurance policies have revolutionized the way automobile insurance is evaluated. Distance-based policies are more reflective of the individual mile-based risk and result in more fitting premiums. As distance-based insurance policies have changed how we think about insurance, so can safety-based insurance policies. If a driving safety profile could be determined for an individual consumer, insurance rates could be tailored to better reflect the individuals collision risk. This method could help further reflect a driver’s risk and in many cases lower the insurance premiums or be an incentive for aggressive or inexperienced drivers to drive safely. 5) Cost-effective car safety features Automotive manufacturers are engaged in the design of safety features on vehicles, which are intended to enhance the driver’s ability to avoid collisions. Some of the state-of-the-art safety features that are being explored by the automobile manufacturers are: forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications. Automotive manufacturers have the objective of creating a â€Å"smart† car through the integration of technology. The â€Å"smart† call will be designed to enhance the driver’s ability to avoid collisions, but the driver will still maintain control. These devices, although potentially very effective in reducing vehicle collisions, fail to address the problem of cell phone use by drivers. Automotive attempts at collision avoidance systems are also relatively expensive and in some cases are limited by participation and communication between vehicles. The complete restriction of cell phone use by drivers seems to be unlikely because of the lack of concrete evidence showing how many crashes are caused by cell phone use, and what the cost of such a ban would be. Short of a complete restriction, a technology that would self-impose restrictions or that could be tailored to the most dangerous demographic of young drivers becomes most probable. A technological solution that is practical, effective, context-based, cost-effective, and focused on the driver’s actions is critically needed. References Allstate Foundation. (February 2007). Parents and teen driving safety quantitative study. Retrieved October, 2008, from Allstate: http://www.allstate.com/content/refreshattachments/citizenship/Teen_driver_Parent_Survey_Findings_2007.pdf Anderson, I. M. (2006). Practical activity recognition using GSM data. University of Bristol UK, Department of Computer Science. Beirness, D. J. (2002). The road safety monitor 2002. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Bordoff, J. P. (2008). Pay-as-you-drive auto insurance: A simple way to reduce driving-related harms and increase equitey. Discussion Paper, The Brookings Institute, The Hamilton Project. Brain Trust Alliance. (2006). Teen brain at the wheel: when is the teen brain â€Å"developmentally ready† for the road. Retrieved November, 2008, from Nebraska Department of Roads: http://www.dor.state.ne.us/safetysummit/2007-presentations/Karen%20Williams%20%20Teen%20Brain%20at%20the%20Wheel%20%20Brain%20Development%20and%20Driving%20.pdf Bunkley, N. (2008. February 12). Retrieved October 2008, from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/12/business/12distract.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=HighTech%20Invitations%20Take%20Your%20Mind%20Off%20Road&st=cse Burns, P. C., et.al. (2002). How dangerous is driving with a mobile phone? Benchmarking the impairment to alcohol. Crowthorne, Berkshire, Transport Research Laboratory TRL, 2002, IV + 56 p., 29 ref.; TRL Report ; No. 547 – ISSN 0968-4107. Chen, G. K. (2000). A survey of context-aware mobile computing research. Dartmouth Computer Science Technical Report TR2000-381. Cohen, J. T. (2003). A revised economic analysis of restrictions on the use of cell phones while driving. Risk Analysis , 23 (1). Foss, R. G. (2008). Short-term effects of a teenage driver cell phone restriction. Insurance Institute For Highway Safety. Hahn, R. T. (1999). The economics of regulating cellular phones in vehicles. American Enterprise Institute-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies., Washington D.C. IIHS. (2003, August) Hand-held cell phone use goes back up in New York, despite year-long ban. Status Report , 38(8), 6-7. IIHS. (2008, September). Cell phone users admit to driving while distracted. Status Report , 43 (7), 6-7. IIHS. (2006, January). Phoning while driving increase year by year, even as evidence of the risk accumulates. Status Report , 41 (1), 4-7. IIHS. (2008, September). Q&As: cellphones and driving. Retrieved October 2008, from Status Report Newsletter. Just, M. A. (2008, December). A decrease in brain activation associated with driving when listening to someone speak. Brain Research , 70-80. Laberge-Nadeau, C. A. (2001). Wireless telephones and the risk of road accidents. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Laboratoire sur la securite des transports. Lee, J. (2007). Technology and teen drivers. Journal of Safety Research , 38 (203-213), 203-13. Litman, T. (1997). Distance-based vehicle insurance as a TDM strategy. Transportation quarterly , 51 (3), 119-138. Lynch, S. (2005) Teenage drivers. Daytona Beach, FL: APCO Institute, Inc. Retrieved November, 2008, from APCO Institute: http://apco911.org/institute/emd_pdf/TeenDrivers.pdf. Martin, P. V. et al. (2006). The impact of drivers making cell phone conversations on the traffic efficeiency of urban freeways. Final Report, University of Utah, Traffic Laboratory. McCartt, A. O. (2007). Cell Phones and Crash Risk. Insurance Institute For Highway Safety. Michigan Secretary of State. (2007, July). Retrieved 11 2008, from Michigan’s graduated driver licensing: A guide for parents: http://www.michigan.gov/documents/gdl_parent_16316_7.pdf National Transporation Safety Board. (2006, November 21). NTSB recommends ban on cell phone use by bus drivers. Retrieved October 2008, from http://www.ntsb.gov/pressrel/2006/061121a.htm National Transportaion Safety Board. (2008, October 28). NTSB adds restricted cell phone use†¦to 2009 most wanted list of safety improvements. Retrieved November 2008, from www.ntsb.gov/pressrel/2008/081028.html Olson, E. (2007, November 3). Retrieved October 2008, from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/03/business/yourmoney/03money.html Ontario Medical Association. (2008). Cellular phone use and driving: a dangerous combination. Retrieved November, 2008, from Ontario Medical Association: http://www.oma.org/health/reports/CellphonesDrivingSafetySept08.pdf Quain, J. R. (2007, December 23). Retrieved October 2008, from New York Times: www.nytimes.com/2007/12/23/automobiles/23talk.html Redelmeier, D. W. (1999). Cost-effectiveness of regulations against using a cellular telephone while driving. Medical Decision Making , 19, 1-8. Redelmeir, D. A. (1997). Association between cellular-telephone calls and motor vehicle collisions. The New England Journal of Medicine , 336 (7), 453-8.